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There are various types of failure that may occur in a system, each of which needs to be dealt with in a different manner The simplest type of failure is one that does not result in the loss of information in the system The failures that are more dif cult to deal with are those that result in loss of information In this chapter, we shall consider only the following types of failure: Transaction failure There are two types of errors that may cause a transaction to fail: Logical error The transaction can no longer continue with its normal execution because of some internal condition, such as bad input, data not found, over ow, or resource limit exceeded System error The system has entered an undesirable state (for example, deadlock), as a result of which a transaction cannot continue with its normal execution The transaction, however, can be reexecuted at a later time System crash There is a hardware malfunction, or a bug in the database software or the operating system, that causes the loss of the content of volatile

The McGraw Hill Companies, 2001

17

storage, and brings transaction processing to a halt The content of nonvolatile storage remains intact, and is not corrupted The assumption that hardware errors and bugs in the software bring the system to a halt, but do not corrupt the nonvolatile storage contents, is known as the fail-stop assumption Well-designed systems have numerous internal checks, at the hardware and the software level, that bring the system to a halt when there is an error Hence, the fail-stop assumption is a reasonable one Disk failure A disk block loses its content as a result of either a head crash or failure during a data transfer operation Copies of the data on other disks, or archival backups on tertiary media, such as tapes, are used to recover from the failure To determine how the system should recover from failures, we need to identify the failure modes of those devices used for storing data Next, we must consider how these failure modes affect the contents of the database We can then propose algorithms to ensure database consistency and transaction atomicity despite failures These algorithms, known as recovery algorithms, have two parts: 1 Actions taken during normal transaction processing to ensure that enough information exists to allow recovery from failures 2 Actions taken after a failure to recover the database contents to a state that ensures database consistency, transaction atomicity, and durability

As a result, the overall length of the movie is now shorter, and the scenes following scene 2 have shifted to the left to fill in the gap

(727)

As we saw in 11, the various data items in the database may be stored and accessed in a number of different storage media To understand how to ensure the atomicity and durability properties of a transaction, we must gain a better understanding of these storage media and their access methods

In 11 we saw that storage media can be distinguished by their relative speed, capacity, and resilience to failure, and classi ed as volatile storage or nonvolatile storage We review these terms, and introduce another class of storage, called stable storage Volatile storage Information residing in volatile storage does not usually survive system crashes Examples of such storage are main memory and cache memory Access to volatile storage is extremely fast, both because of the speed of the memory access itself, and because it is possible to access any data item in volatile storage directly Nonvolatile storage Information residing in nonvolatile storage survives system crashes Examples of such storage are disk and magnetic tapes Disks are used for online storage, whereas tapes are used for archival storage Both,

The McGraw Hill Companies, 2001

CHAPTER 4: